The question, Are there any health risks associated with cookware and bakeware?, can be answered with a simple ‘yes’.
However, context is essential when trying to understand the relative or absolute risks posed by the various chemicals and materials used in their manufacturing. For example, a ‘safe’ product may become problematic if used outside of the recommended manufacturer’s guidelines.
Also, expert opinions differ, meaning that even when a manufacturer states a particular product is safe, either anecdotal or emerging scientific evidence may raise concerns. This can lead to considerable confusion for both lay people and professionals alike.
An example of this relates to chemical leaching (migration) from cookware or bakeware into foods. This issue is down played by manufacturers, yet for example, the world’s largest biomedical library, the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLH), openly acknowledges that, “Pots, pans, and other tools used in cooking often do more than just hold the food. The material that they are made from can leach into the food that is being cooked.”
To illustrate this point, xenoestrogens in food have become an increasingly topical issue in recent years. Xenoestrogens are man-made chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system (glands and hormones) by either mimicking or interfering with natural estrogens. Examples include metalloestrogens associated with metal products, e.g. aluminium or copper, and certain substances such as Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), Bisphenol A (BPA) and Phthalates associated with non-stick coatings.
This highlights the following situation: what was once considered safe may now be deemed unsafe, and similarly, what is now considered safe may not be in the future. Things are not always black and white-some health issues are currently in a grey area. This is currently the situation regarding certain cookware and bakeware materials. Just because a substance has not been shown to be unsafe does not mean it is actually safe.
Therefore, the reader should apply commonsense when reading the following article and if concerned, they should consider alternatives that have stood the test of time. We will discuss healthier and safer cookware and bakeware at the end of this article.
This article will discuss the following materials and issues:
- Aluminium
- Cast iron and rust
- Ceramic and enamel
- Copper
- Cutting Boards
- Non-Stick Coatings:
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)
GenX and PFBS - Silicone
- Stainless steel
- Titanium
The chemicals and materials discussed here can be present in both cookware and bakeware, therefore the latter terms will be used interchangeably. The key point to remember is that bakeware operates at high or very high temperatures, and as we will discover, the risk of toxicity increases with temperature.
Even though there are exceptions and overlaps regarding the definition of cookware and bakeware, one can say that:
- Cookware is a broad umbrella term. It can include pans, casseroles, pots, kettles, woks, skillets, frying pans, griddles, deep fryers, saute pans, baking sheets, roasters, muffin trays, pizza pans, cookie sheets, pie plates, ice cream cones, coffee mugs, teapots, pasta dishes, vegetable dishes, soup bowls, cutting boards, salad bowls, serving platters. Cookware is made of various materials, including aluminium, ceramic, copper, stainless steel, silicone, glass and polypropylene. Each material has its own unique properties, which make it suitable for specific uses. Cookware typically has curved sides and a broad flat bottom.
- Bakeware is any container used for baking or storing baked goods such as breads, cakes, pies, springform pans, tart pans, pie shells, Bundt pans, cookies, brownies, cupcakes, biscuits, mini-muffin cups, mini-cupcake cases. It can be made from various materials, such as aluminium, ceramics, enamelled cast iron, glass, silicone, stoneware and stainless steel. Bakeware typically has high straight sides.
Aluminium Health Risks
Aluminium (termed aluminum in the U.S.) is commonly found in cookware and bakeware. Examples include aluminium foil, as well as both disposable and standard baking and roasting pans.
Is cooking with aluminium dangerous?
Whilst it’s been recognised for some time that tiny amounts of aluminium may get into food if prepared using an aluminium pan or cooking utensil, there is disagreement about the risk this poses to health.
For example, although aluminium has been associated with a range of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinsonism dementia and multiple sclerosis, no definitive link has yet been proven. For example, some studies have found increased aluminium concentrations in dementia patients’ brains, whereas other did not. Alzheimer Associations typically say aluminium cookware does not present a major risk for the disease.
The consensus has been there is insufficient evidence available to determine whether this poses any health risk to anyone without a known history of kidney disease. Kidney disease reduces excretion of aluminium from the body, which overtime can lead to it accumulating in the tissues and organs of the body.
However, several studies have raised various concerns. For example:
Al-Ashmawy 2011 studied the risk of aluminium residues in milk and certain dairy products. They looked at bulk farm milk, market milk, locally manufactured processed cheese, and milk powder. The study concluded, “Al [Aluminium] level in milk kept in Al containers and dairy products packed in Al foil is beyond the permissible limits, suggesting health hazard.” They made the following recommendations:
- All milk cans (farm) should be constructed of stainless steel.
- Processed cheese should be packaged in glass containers and not wrapped in aluminium foil.
- Leaching of aluminium increased to a significant percent during storage, so milk should be kept in stainless steel or glass containers in the refrigerator.
Zendehboodi 2018 looked at the cytotoxicity (toxic to cells) and genotoxicity (toxic to genetic information) on onion root tips of water that had been boiled in aluminium vessels. The conclusion was, “The findings of this preliminary study supported a possible health hazard of aluminum cookwares.”
Furthermore, Mold et al. 2020 study linked aluminium exposure with Alzheimer’s disease in certain circumstances. They found “significantly higher levels of aluminum in brain tissues in donors with familial Alzheimer’s disease”.
Advice regarding using aluminium cookware and bakeware
There are certain things that can be done to minimize the risk associated with aluminium in cooking and these include:
- Always use anodized aluminium cookware and bakeware and not plain, uncoated aluminium products. Anodizing oxidizes the surface and helps prevent the metal from leaching into the food.
- Be aware that aluminium leaching occurs at a far higher rate at very high temperatures and when in the presence of acidic foods such as tomatoes, lemons or rhubarb. It can also be affected by certain herbs and salt.
- Do not store food, especially acidic food, in aluminium pans.
- If you use aluminium foil when cooking, use it only occasionally. Consider aluminium foil alternatives, such as baking/parchment paper.
Given the ongoing debate regarding the health issues surrounding aluminium bakeware, consider the following points:
- Occasional use probably does not present a notable risk for most people. The amount of leaching into the food is tiny.
- Given most aluminium cookware and bakeware nowadays is anodized, the greatest risk of leaching is through the use of aluminium foil.
- Anyone with kidney disease or who has an increased risk of developing neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
Cast Iron and Rust Health Risks
The popularity of cast iron skillets and pans has fluctuated over the generations as fads and fashions come and go.
Critics complain they are heavy and in order to achieve non-stick status, cast iron needs to be seasoned (oiled). Also, they are not dishwasher safe and can develop rust (iron oxide) if not properly cleaned and looked after.
Advocates love the durability, great heat conduction and retention, and ability of cast iron products to function at very high temperatures. In addition, they can last a lifetime if cared for properly and are considered a low health risk cookware.
However, given the potential issue of rust associated with iron cookware and bakeware, does this pose a genuine health risk?
Is cooking with cast-iron dangerous?
Brittin and Nossaman 1986 showed a cast iron skillet can leach notable levels of iron into food. They found, “Acidity, moisture content, and cooking time of food significantly affected the iron content of food cooked in iron utensils.” Basically, higher acidity foods with higher moisture content, longer cooking times, more frequent stirring and new cast iron products leached higher amounts of iron.
America’s test kitchen found unseasoned cast iron pans released 10x more iron into food than seasoned cast iron pans. Given seasoned cast iron leaching was only marginally higher than using stainless steel, they concluded, “A seasoned cast-iron skillet will not leach any appreciable amount of iron into food cooked in it.”
Therefore, if we accept leaching occurs (albeit at low levels, according to America’s test kitchen), does this form of iron consumption pose a health risk?
A study by Alves et al. 2019 discovered that “iron-containing cookware could serve as a means of reducing IDA [iron deficiency anemia] especially among children.” Therefore, for people who are iron deficient or anaemic, iron leaching could actually be advantageous. On the flip side, it might be a problem for people with the condition haemochromatosis (body absorbs too much iron from food).
However, for the majority of people, cooking with cast iron would provide just one source of dietary iron. The RDA (recommended dietary or daily allowance) for iron according to the NHS is:
- 8.7mg (men over 18 and women over 50)
- 14.8mg (women 19 – 50)
Dryer 2003 defined RDA as, “the average daily dietary intake level that suffices to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%) healthy persons of a specific sex, age, life stage, or physiological condition (such as pregnancy or lactation).”
Advice regarding using cast iron cookware and bakeware
- Always season cast iron cookware to minimize iron leaching. Store clean and dry.
- Don’t let food sit for long periods in cast iron cookware. Do not store food in this form of cookware.
- For most people, the risk to health from using properly maintained cast iron cookware is negligible. It represents a very small source of dietary iron. However, those with haemochromatosis should avoid this form of cookware/bakeware and seek alternatives.
- Enamel coated cast iron is an alternative. The downside is that they are heavy, the enamel typically wears off after a few years of regular use and they can be expensive. However, on a positive note, certified products are considered a safe option. They withstand high heat, distribute heat well and their non-stick nature makes cleaning easy.
Ceramic and Enamel Health Risks
The broad umbrella term ‘ceramic’ refers to earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Non-metallic minerals are burned at high temperatures to produce a hard, impermeable but brittle product. Pottery is just one type of ceramic.
By contrast, enamel refers to an opaque, powdered glass coating baked onto either ceramic or metal objects.
Is cooking with ceramic and enamel dangerous?
Good quality ceramic cookware is an excellent choice for long cooked dishes when compared to many other forms of cookware. For example, stainless steel will eventually tarnish and corrode with long simmered dishes containing high salt or acidic contents, e.g. vinegar, lemon, wine.
The primary issue with this group of cookware and bakeware relates to the chemicals added to the glazing. Glazing is used to create a durable, glass-like coating that is resistant to wear and corrosion. The coating helps resist stains and scratches whilst minimizing food odours impregnating the cookware. It can also be highly colourful and decorative.
Typically, in Western countries, strict regulations exist regarding the type, amount and toxicity of chemicals used in manufacturing processes, especially for those related to the food sector. This means that cookware and bakeware used in some parts of the world cannot be legally imported, advertised or sold in the West as they breach health regulations.
This can be an issue, for example, when people returning from holiday bring back ceramic cookware. It’s possible for the cookware to be confiscated and/or a fine issued at Customs. Even if they avoid detection at Customs, the products may present a health risk if used for cooking.
Never use any product considered antique, craft or collectable for food preparation. Also, do not eat off a decorative wall-type plate or wash it up with general food plates and utensils. This type of plate may contain chemical levels far over safety limits. Decorative wall plates are are usually differentiated from food plates by having a mounting hole for hanging.
The most common problem associated with inferior quality ceramic and enamel cookware is the use of decorative pigments that contain high levels of heavy metals. Ingestion of heavy metals such as lead or cadmium can cause serious health problems. These can include damage to the brain and organs, such as the kidneys or liver. In extreme cases, death can occur.
One can find many real-world examples of this issue. For example, there was an outbreak of lead poisoning in New York in 2021 that was associated with traditional ceramic ware used for cooking and serving foods or drinks.
Other heavy metals associated with glazing and pigments include arsenic, chromium, copper, nickel, silver, zinc and tin. These can all pose risk to human health if present in levels above those listed in regulatory guidelines.
Aside from this issue, other concerns about this form of cookware include:
- Ceramic and enamel cookware is prone to chipping and cracking. This can increase the risk of toxic substances leaching into the food, especially if the product is of inferior quality. For example, the product may have been made from contaminated clay, or the underlying metal may contain high levels of toxic elements, such as lead.
- Most ceramics have low heat conductivity, meaning they take longer to heat than traditional cast iron or stainless steel cookware. In poor quality products, this can increase the risk of chemicals leaching into the food.
- Low-quality products may give rise to toxic fumes being inhaled during heating and handling.
Advice regarding using ceramic and enamel cookware and bakeware
- Only buy ceramic and enamel cookware from reputable companies and outlets. Check the products are certified ‘Safe for food use’. Reputable companies guarantee their manufacturing processes and certify them as adhering to health regulations.
- Market stalls or non verifiable sources may have illegally imported their ceramic and enamel products. These could be a health risk. Fake or altered certification is a possibility. Safety labels may be bogus or warning labels may have been removed or painted/covered over. Never use an item marked ‘Not for food use’.
- Glassware provides an alternative option. Glass cookware is typically made from borosilicate glass, which contains no lead or cadmium. However, glass cookware is more fragile and can be more expensive than other options.
Copper Health Risks
The primary advantage of copper cookware is that copper is a great conductor of heat. Cooks and chefs prize this attribute because is allows precise temperature control. They require this for cooking sensitive and delicate foods, e.g. sauces.
Is cooking with copper dangerous?
Copper leaching (dissolving) into food can cause excessive amounts of copper to enter the body. Copper toxicity (Copperiedus) may give rise to food poisoning symptoms, including abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea. This is particularly an issue when copper contacts acidic foods such as wine, vinegar, citrus foods and tomatoes, but can also include processed meats, grains and even cabbage and salted water.
Other symptoms of copper toxicity may include mouth, nose or eye irritation. Some people report an unpleasant metallic taste associated with copper contaminated food. Long-term copper toxicity can lead to both liver and kidney failure.
In the past, various metals have been used as a coating to help prevent copper toxicity, e.g. tin and nickel. However, many of these are no longer recommended due to them being associated with health issues, e.g. nickel allergy.
The most common lining today of copper and brass (alloy of copper and zinc) pans is stainless steel. As we will see later in this article, although stainless steel is not perfect, it is durable and is currently considered one of the safest metals to cook with.
Advice regarding using copper cookware and bakeware
- Only use modern coated copper pans.
- Remember that the protective lining used to coat copper cookware can become damaged through wear and tear because of scouring, scratching or repeated exposure to acidic foods. Therefore, treat your equipment well and check it periodically for damage. In particular, be alert to the appearance of toxic green specks or patches (Verdigris).
- Do not store food, especially acidic food, in copper pans.
Cutting Board Health Risks
Cutting boards are made from various materials such as plastic, wood, laminates, acrylic, glass, clay, bamboo, marble, stone, pyroceramic as well as silicone. The most common shape is rectangular or square and they can be single or double sided.
Is cooking using cutting boards dangerous?
The main risk associated with cutting boards relates to hygiene. Bacterial cross contamination can cause food poisoning. The risk is elevated if the board is heavily worn–deep grooves and scratches can harbour pathogenic bacteria.
No matter what type of board is used, food preparation demands good hygiene. Therefore, the board should be washed in hot, soapy water after use and then rinsed in clean water. Allow to air dry or dry with a clean paper towel.
Some people prefer 2 boards to minimize the risk of bacterial cross contamination. One is only used for cutting and chopping raw meat, poultry, fish, and seafoods prior to them being cooked; the other one is used for items that remain uncooked, such as bread.
Silicone cutting boards have become increasingly popular in recent years due to them being available in bright colours, easy to maintain, heat resistant and dishwasher friendly. However, concerns have been raised about health risks associated with silicone and food preparation. This will be discussed in depth in the section on silicone cookware and bakeware.
Most issues related to silicone products appear associated with inferior quality products and chemical leaching into food during high temperature baking. However, studies have shown issues can arise at moderate temperatures and even at room temperature.
Check the manufacturer’s guidelines if you use a dishwasher. Most glass, acrylic, solid wood, silicone and plastic boards are dishwasher safe but do not place laminated boards in them.
Advice regarding using cutting boards
- All cutting boards wear out in time as they either crack or become worn with deep grooves. A worn board may not only harbour pathogenic bacteria but it might increase the risk of chemical migration into the food. Therefore, discard any older or damaged cutting board before it presents a health risk.
- Be aware of the issues surrounding silicone products. Only use food grade silicone products bought from reputable suppliers.
Non-Stick Coating Health Risks
Non-stick coated cookware and bakeware has become commonplace nowadays. Considered a miracle substance by those who hate dish washing by hand, non-stick low friction coatings have made cleaning cookware and bakeware so much easier. Being durable and rust/corrosion resistant means little maintenance is required. Also, less oil is needed in cooking, which is a bonus for those on diets. Another advantage is the coatings are non-flammable.
Discovered in 1938, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) became synonymous with the non-stick brand name ‘Teflon’ and the company Du Pont. Nowadays, various manufacturers produce non-stick coatings.
Manufacturers claim that non-stick coatings are non-toxic, even if small flakes are ingested. We are told that they travel the digestive tract and remain inert and unchanged. To emphasise this point, advocates remind us that non-stick coatings are routinely used in certain surgical procedures, including hip and knee joint replacements and implants.
Is cooking with non-stick coatings dangerous?
There is ongoing debate surrounding the safety of PTFE and PFOA, as well as the newer generation of coatings, such as GenX and a related compound called PFBS.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)
There are concerns that when cookware or bakeware is heated, especially if overheated, then the PTFE coating can break down and release various toxic particles and gases, including both PTFE and PFOA. Understand that empty cookware left unattended on a stove, hob or oven can become extremely hot in a matter of minutes.
Manufacturers typically respond with a two-fold answer:
- First, many substances produce gases and become toxic at higher temperatures.
- Second, household ovens have an upper temperature of around 275C/527F, but most people never cook at this temperature. This figure is lower than 360C/680°F, which is the temperature at which DuPont studies showed Teflon gives off various toxic gases.
However, the DuPont studies also revealed Teflon off-gases toxic particles even at 240C/464°F. In fact, The Environmental Working Group (EWG) carried out tests and observed that a frying pan could reach a temperature over 391C/736°F in less than three and half minutes. Moreover, a study by Sajiid and Ilyas 2017 noted, “There are some reports where PFOA was detected in the gas phase released from the cooking utensils under normal cooking temperatures” and “At normal cooking temperatures, PTFE-coated cookware releases various gases and chemicals that present mild to severe toxicity.”
A condition termed polymer fume fever, though relatively uncommon in households, has been associated with the fumes given off from non-stick coatings. Flu-like symptoms typically develop within 8 hours of exposure and an elevated white blood cell count can accompany this.
Interestingly, Bradley and Castle 2007 investigated the migration potential of coating materials from 26 non-stick cookware products. All stove-top products containing PTFE were heated to 250C/482F for 30 minutes. They found migration levels to be “too low to give any detectable migration into foods.” They suggested the origin of detected substances originated from the cookware printed packaging materials.
Although the levels of substances detected were very low, benzene, certain phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) were still present. These 3 substances have been linked to health issues, even at low levels. Benzene health risks include cancer, birth defects, immune system damage, liver problems and neurological disorders. Phthalates are hormone disruptors and BPA causes reproductive and developmental problems.
PFOA has been linked with various safety concerns, even at tiny doses. For example, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognises it as a ‘probable carcinogen‘.
It has been associated with a catalogue of health issues involving the cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, reproductive, and urinary system. Problems involving high cholesterol, infertility, thyroid disease, learning problems, weight gain and flu-like symptoms have also been documented.
Although several manufacturers agreed to phase out PFOA in cookware and bakeware by 2015, many homes still use old pots and pans which pre-date this time. Moreover, though regulated in Western countries, this does not necessarily apply to other countries in the world that may still use it.
GenX and PFBS
Despite the newer generation of non-stick materials being touted by manufacturers as safe, various concerns have been raised about them.
Sajiid and Ilyas 2017 said that “Due to toxicity concerns, PFOA has been replaced with other chemicals such as GenX, but these new alternatives are also suspected to have similar toxicity.”
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) produced a human health toxicity assessment of GenX chemicals. They noted animals studies showed associated health effects including, “liver, kidneys, the immune system, development of offspring, and an association with cancer”. Furthermore, they state, “the liver appears to be particularly sensitive from oral exposure to GenX chemicals”.
Advice regarding using non-stick cookware and bakeware
- There are studies raising health concerns about traditional and newer generation non-stick coatings.
- Discard old pots and pans manufactured prior to 2015 because of the PFOA issue.
- Try to cook at lower temperature where possible. Avoid very high temperatures.
- Clean with only non-scratch/scoring products. If scoured or scratched, discard because of an elevated risk of leaching.
Silicone Health Risks
Silicone cookware and bakeware products have become increasingly popular in the last decade. Being available in a range of bright and cheerful colours appeals to many people. There are many other advantages, including they are durable, do not scratch easily or react with acidic or alkaline foods, are dishwasher safe, and food does not stick to them like traditional metal cookware.
It is important to understand that the terms silicon and silicone are not the same. Silicon is a naturally occurring element. It rarely occurs in its natural state and is typically found as quartz/silica (silicon dioxide)-a common component of sand and various minerals. By contrast, silicone is a man made synthetic substance.
Silicones (synthetic, man made rubber) are a highly versatile class of polymers associated with adhesives, greases, gums, liquids, lubricants, polymer additive, resins, rubbers and sealants. They are found in a wide range of products, such as tyres, medical equipment and implants, electronic components, cosmetics, food packaging, food additives, and cookware and bakeware.
Health authorities say silicone products are safe. For example, back in 1979, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said the basic element of silicone cookware and bakeware, silicon dioxides, were GRAS (generally recognised as safe) for food grade materials.
Furthermore, Health Canada states: “There are no known health hazards associated with use of silicone cookware. Silicone rubber does not react with food or beverages, or produce any hazardous fumes.”
Is cooking with silicone dangerous?
Various concerns have been raised about silicone products, especially regarding cooking and baking. These largely fall into 2 categories, namely:
- Quality of silicone used.
- High temperature cooking.
Quality of silicone used
The quality of silicone bakeware can be highly variable. Cheap products are cheap for a reason–lower quality products typically use lower-quality silicone. Pure silicone is relatively expensive, so in order to reduce costs, certain manufacturers increase the level of additives, binders, or fillers. Poor quality silicone will also contain higher levels of contaminants or impurities. This can lead to 3 potential issues:
- Degraded product performance.
- Odours and off-gassing. Off-gassing commonly refers to the emission of chemical particulate matter and gases (volatile organic compounds or VOCs) from household products and the associated indoor air quality. This problem increases at higher temperatures.
- Lower grade silicone may pose a risk to health either through airborne emissions or migration into food. This problem increases at higher temperatures.
High temperature cooking
Silicone bakeware typically has a manufacturer’s recommended upper temperature limit around 200C/392F to 220C/428F.
High temperature cooking is of particular interest for those baking cakes. For comparison, bread is often baked between 88C/190F to 99C/210F, whereas cakes are typically baked between 149C/300F to 204C/400F. 177C/350F is a good happy medium for cake baking.
The main issues related to high temperature cooking are:
Odours and Off-gassing
From an anecdotal perspective, a quick check of the internet shows silicone related odour issues to be a relatively common problem. It would seem that those products made from 100% pure food grade silicone have far fewer issues. As noted previously, fillers and binders in silicone cookware or bakeware appear to be associated with odours, especially when the products are used at high temperatures.
Fromme et al. 2019 looked at indoor air emissions and migration to food from various silicone baking moulds when heated using an electric oven. The study found off-gas volatile methylsiloxanes (VMS) from silicone moulds was highest immediately following baking, and that those moulds composed of higher levels of VMS emitted higher levels of VMS during baking. Although 4 moulds exceeded the German indoor precaution guide value for certain VMS, the health hazard guide value was not reached during every experiment.
Silicone Migration
Migration into food from silicone products is associated with additives and fillers, breakdown and reaction products, catalysts and oligomers.
The risk of chemical migration into food increases if the silicone is of low quality, or if the food is cooked at high temperatures.
Fromme et al. 2019 study of the heating of silicone baking moulds using an electric oven said this about volatile methylsiloxanes (VMS) migration into food, “Samples collected from the edge of the cake had higher concentrations relative to samples from the center”.
Meuwly et al. 2005 study entitled ‘Heat stability and migration from silicone baking moulds’ found low chemical migration up to 100C/212F and products maintained stability up to 150C/302F. However, above this temperature, “the limit of 10 mg/dm2 prescribed by the Resolution of the Council of Europe is reached in most cases.” Migration levels reached high values over 175C/347F.
The importance of curing silicone bakeware
Meuwly et al. 2005 highlighted the importance of curing new silicone bakeware before you use it for food. They discovered the following alarming aspect about new silicone bakeware: “some moulds lose more than 0.5% of their weight during a 4 hour heating process.” Thankfully, this issue declined rapidly with repeated use of the product.
An important takeaway from Fromme et al. 2019 was that, “Using a mould for more than one baking cycle reduced the indoor air concentrations substantially.” They concluded, “As a general rule, silicone moulds should be used only after precleaning and while strictly following the temperature suggestions of the producers.”
Helling et al. 2009 also showed the importance of tempering (curing) silicone bakeware. The paper entitled ‘Migration behaviour of silicone moulds in contact with different foodstuffs’ discovered “Proper tempering of the moulds had a major influence on the migration properties of siloxanes into different foodstuffs.”
Advice regarding using silicone cookware and bakeware
- Be aware that although silicone leaching toxins into the food is worse at high temperatures, it can occur at moderate temperatures. For example, Simoneau et al. 2012 tested baby bottles made from a range of materials. They concluded, “Results showed that bottles made of PP [polypropylene] and silicones showed a greater number of substances in the migration solutions and in greater quantity”. A range of chemicals were detected, including phthalates and possible ink-related chemicals, such as benzophenone and naphthalene.
Groh 2016 also tested a range of baby bottles. The silicone bottle results were classifiable as “high concern” for various migration chemicals registered on endocrine disruptor lists, as well as the TTC approach proposed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).
Given these issues occurred at room temperature and not high temperatures associated with baking, this raises concerns regarding the use of various silicone cookware and kitchenware, e.g. cutting boards, which are also subject to regular cleaning in dishwashers at 70C/158F. - Buy products listed as being100% pure food or medical grade silicone. These grades of silicone should not contain fillers. This is important because poor quality silicone or anything containing industrial grade silicone could pose a significant health risk. For example, a publication by Dr. Geueke (Scientific Officer at the Food Packaging Forum) entitled ‘ Dossier–Silicones‘ found that, “A possible oxidation product and migrant of silicone rubbers and resins is formaldehyde.” Formaldehyde can cause many health issues and various agencies consider it a probable or known human carcinogen.
- Reputable manufacturers usually produce higher quality products. Cheap products may save money initially, but they might come with long-term health risks.
- Examine silicone products when buying. Fillers can sometimes be spotted by twisting or pinching the product and observing a whitish appearance or white streaks. High-quality silicone products should not change colour when either twisted or pinched, neither should they lose elasticity or crack.
- Various studies have shown some manufactures do not cure silicone bakeware properly. Therefore, as a precaution, cure new products yourself before using them for food. Place the new bakeware in an oven between 200C/392F to 220C/ 428F for at least 2 hours. When cooled, wash them in copious amounts of warm soapy water before drying. Some people err on the side of caution and repeat this process once or twice.
- Never heat silicone products beyond the manufacturer’s guidelines and even then, be aware that studies show silicone products at high temperatures carry risks.
- Even if silicone cookware and bakeware was eventually proven to be safe, people with known chemical sensitivities might still want to consider alternatives as a precaution.
Stainless Steel Health Risks
Many people do not realise that the stainless steel is not a pure substance. It is composed of various elements which, when combined, form a lustrous metal alloy. Carbon, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, nitrogen phosphorus, silicon, sulphur and titanium are elements that may be present. The main element of stainless steel is chromium (minimum of 10.5%).
The choice and ratio of elements used determines the properties, characteristics and grade of stainless steel, e.g. 304, 316, etc. For example, carbon affects the hardness, chromium the anti-oxidation profile, nickel determines the anti-corrosion and heat resistance, and titanium reduces scratch, corrosion and heat damage.
Stainless steel does not conduct and disperse heat evenly. To counter this problem, manufacturers sandwich a sheet of aluminium or copper between the stainless steel, and/or add a copper or aluminium bottom to the product. More layers (also referred to as ‘clad’ or ‘ply’) results in better heat conductivity and distribution and lessens the risk of warping. However, the downside is they add weight to the cookware. Copper bottom pans are superior to aluminium ones because copper has higher thermal conductivity characteristics. However, copper based pans can be expensive.
Compared to non-stick pans, stainless steel cookware can be heavy (if multiple layers) and you have to be more careful regarding food sticking and cleaning them. Stainless steel is not completely inert; it is mildly reactive. For example, repeated long cooked dishes containing salt and acidic components can tarnish and even corrode stainless steel.
The advantages of stainless steel products are many fold. They are durable, resistant to heat damage, keep heat well, are easy to maintain, plus they are dishwasher friendly.
It’s not uncommon to read on the internet that stainless steel pots and pans have ‘No health or safety concerns’. You may be told that they don’t have a non-stick coating and therefore no chemicals can get into your food. A common argument is the medical profession uses stainless steel e.g. implants, surgical tools and instruments, and therefore stainless steel cookware is completely safe.
However, is it true there are no safety concerns regarding stainless steel?
Is cooking with stainless steel dangerous?
Stainless steel comes in various qualities and many grades. When comparing food industry stainless steel with that used in the medical profession, it is important to realise you may not be comparing like-with-like. For example, there is a difference between cutlery grade and medical grade stainless.
The primary concern regarding stainless steel cookware and bakeware is the risk of toxic leaching (migration) from the vessel into food. Logically, inferior quality or damaged products increase the risk.
We can divide toxic leaching into 2 categories, namely:
- If the product is made from layers of aluminium or copper sandwiched between stainless steel, and the protective layer of stainless steel is damaged or worn away through wear and tear, then the aluminium or copper can leach into the contents of the item being cooked. Risks associated with aluminium and copper were discussed previously.
- Stainless steel is an alloy made from various elements. If these elements leached in significant quantities into the food being cooked, they could present various health issues. For example, iron could be problematic to those with haemochromatosis and nickel for those who are allergic to it, e.g. allergic contact dermatitis.
Back in 1992, Kuligowski and Halperin studied stainless steel cookware in mildly acidic conditions at boiling temperature. They discovered, “Nickel was a major corrosion product from stainless steel utensils; chromium and iron were also detected.” They suggested that the stainless steel cookware industry should “seriously consider switching to a non-nickel formulation” because of nickel sensitivity.
Park and Brittin 1997 study showed the iron content of food increased because of stainless steel cookware.
Kamerud et al. 2013 examined various aspects of nickel and chromium leaching from stainless steel cookware. They observed:
- Long cooking times resulted in higher levels of nickel and chromium in the food, e.g. 26x more nickel after 6 hours of cooking.
- Cooking with new products yielded the highest results. Leaching decreases with each subsequent cycle and stabilises by the 6th cooking cycle.
- Stainless steel is a source of nickel and chromium.
- Grade of stainless steel, cooking time and cookware usage impact leaching.
Sharma 2013 showed nickel sensitivity is a relatively common problem. It affects between 4 to 13.1% of the population, depending on the country. It more commonly affects women and, incredibly, it impacts between 27% – 38% of people in some professions, e.g. hairdressers.
Chromium contact allergy rates vary across the world but are declining over time, in part, due to improving health and safety regulations. Bregnbak et al. 2015 showed it affected 4.9% of Europe, 3.7% North America and 15.4% of Asia in 2009.
Therefore, nickel-sensitivity is more prevalent than chromium-sensitivity, however, they are both more common than people realise. Given that stainless steel leaches both elements into food, are these levels high enough to pose a health risk?
Back in 1998, Accominotti et al. studied nickel and chromium leaching during cooking of meals in stainless steel utensils. Their overall conclusions were:
- Nickel and chromium leaching varied significantly depending on the meal being cooked.
- Nickel and chromium levels were significantly lower in meals cooked in glass cookware.
- Intake levels were under the WHO’s tolerable daily intake (TDI).
- As long as you use good quality stainless steel, there is no advantage for nickel-sensitive patients in switching to other materials.
Guarneri et al. 2017 assessed nickel and chromium released from 316 grade stainless steel pots. They found these pots safe for most people who experienced either nickel of chromium allergies. However, several factors were associated with higher levels of leaching. These factors had the potential to raise leaching levels and trigger a reaction in those highly sensitivity. The factors were:
- New pots released the highest levels.
- Leaching increased with acidity (low PH).
- Cooking with EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) increased leaching.
- Leaching levels varied significantly between manufacturers.
Interestingly, the study suggested that low-dose oral exposure to these elements might actually contribute to the induction of immunotolerance, i.e. lack of immune response.
Koo et al. 2020 study of metallic kitchen utensils and health risks linked to toxic metal release also confirmed some findings of Guarneri et al. 2017. They observed:
- New pots released the highest levels. Nickel and chromium leaching were significantly higher on first use compared to the third time.
- Leaching increased with acidity (low PH).
- Leaching of chromium was higher when washing only with water and using a steel wool pad.
They suggested it was improbable that the current level of exposure from metallic kitchen utensils would pose a health risk.
Do some stainless steel leaching elements pose a greater risk than others?
Out of the 3 main leaching elements, nickel, chromium and iron, it would appear that nickel has the potential to cause most problems.
First, iron leaching from stainless steel is far less than from using cast iron cookware. We previously learned iron leaching from cast iron was only a potential issue for those who had the condition haemochromatosis.
Second, although chromium leaches into food from stainless steel, there is a lack of evidence that this amount consumed would have any deleterious effects on the body. In fact, as noted by the NIH, the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) concluded that, “no adverse effects have been linked to high intakes of chromium from food or supplements, so it did not establish a UL [Tolerable Upper Intake Level] for chromium”.
However, an estimated Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for nickel has been set to 1mg/day. To put this figure in context, Kamerud et al. 2013 found 88 μg of nickel in a 126g serving of tomato sauce when prepared in a stainless vessel used for the 10th time. 88 μg is the same as 0.088 mg (1000 μg= 1mg), which is far less than the UL figure of 1mg/day.
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) or Adequate Intake (AI) for nickel has not been determined or set.
Interestingly, the ATSDR 2019 Substance Priority List of hazardous substances (based on frequency, toxicity and potential for human exposure) lists nickel in position 58. However, it is the amount of exposure that determines the risk.
Therefore, although stainless steel is a source of nickel, chromium and iron, consumption of these elements from stainless steel cookware is unlikely to pose a health risk. This agrees with various studies such as Accominotti et al. 1998 (who noted leaching was under WHO tolerable daily intake) or Koo et al. 2020 (who suggested it was improbable that the current level of exposure from metallic kitchen utensils would pose a health risk).
The overriding risk of nickel and chromium from stainless steel is for people who have an allergy to them. Both Sharma 2013 and Bregnbak et al. 2015 showed nickel and chromium sensitivity is not uncommon. However, remember that Guarneri et al. 2017 suggested common stainless steel (18/10) “is considered to be safe” for most nickel-allergic and/or chromium-allergic subjects. The study felt only highly sensitive patients may experience problems.
Advice regarding using stainless steel cookware and bakeware
- Compared to other forms of cookware, e.g. non-stick, stainless steel is one of the healthier options.
- The most common health issue associated with stainless steel products relates to sensitivity to nickel, and to a lesser extent, chromium. Even if you are not affected by this problem, you might consider buying nickel free stainless steel given that Sharma 2013 said, “Nickel allergy may develop at any age. Once developed, it tends to persist life-long.”
- However, be aware of 2 things. First, ‘nickel-free’ can be a misleading marketing term. Products with this label may still contain low levels of nickel, e.g. 0.75%. Second, nickel free products (graded 400 series) are more prone to rusting with age.
- Buy good quality pans. 300 series graded stainless steel cookware is usually recommended because of being durable and rust resistant. 304 products are usually marked 18/10 (18 percent chromium and 10 percent nickel), although 18/8 are available. Higher grade 316 (also referred to as surgical or marine stainless steel) is more expensive but exhibits superior anti-corrosion properties because of the addition of molybdenum and/or titanium.
- Check stainless steel cookware and bakeware for damage. If pitted, grooved or worn through wear and tear, discard the item because of an increased risk of leaching. Scouring increases the risk of damage. Therefore, if food has burned, cover the area with baking soda and soak the pot for 1 day. The residue should then lift easily with a non-scratch pad. Repeat the process for tough areas or run through a dishwasher at 70C.
- New stainless steel products leach the highest levels of nickel and chromium. Therefore, consider the following for new pots or pans before cooking food in them. Fill the new pan with boiling water and simmer for one hour. Discard this and repeat the process several times. Wash thoroughly in warm soapy water before drying.
- Erring on the side of caution, anyone with kidney disease or who has an increased risk of developing neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease might wish to avoid stainless steel products that contain aluminium layers or an aluminium bottom. Either use those containing copper or consider alternative forms of cookware.
Titanium Health Risks
Titanium (Ti) is found in natural mineral deposits such as anatase, ilmenite, rutiel or titanite. These natural minerals are obtained through mining heavy mineral sands. Titanium is the ninth most abundant element and approximately 90% of it comes from ilmenite.
The most common compound made from these mineral deposits is a bright white powder called titanium dioxide. Various industries make use of the powder and include it in products such as white paint, paper, cosmetics, polishing compounds, medicines, toothpastes, sunscreens and skim milk to whiten it. Titanium dioxide accounts for about 90-95% of the use of titanium when compared to titanium metal production.
Titanium is added to other metals, e.g. cobalt, iron, nickel, to produce stronger alloys. Its characteristics of high strength, low density and corrosion resistance make it appealing to industries such as aerospace. It is also commonly found in the world of medicine, e.g. dentistry, orthopaedics, prosthetics and surgical instruments.
Types of titanium cookware and bakeware
Titanium cookware and bakeware comes in 3 forms:
- Pure titanium cookware. Pros-very strong and durable, corrosion and scratch resistant, very lightweight, can last a lifetime if treated well. Cons-poor heat conduction and distribution, not non-stick. More commonly used by backpackers and campers.
- Pure titanium with a silicon coating. Do not confuse the terms silicon and silicone. As noted in the section on silicone cookware, silicon is a naturally occurring element whereas silicone is a man made synthetic substance. The silicon coating improves the non-stick characteristics and makes maintenance and cleaning easier.
- Hybrid titanium cookware. This can be constructed in various ways:
2-layer construction: typically a ceramic coating (containing titanium) over an aluminium core. The ceramic coating helps prevent aluminium leaching. The aluminium core enhances heat conduction and distribution. Better heat distribution combined with a ceramic coating means improved non-stick characteristics, which makes cleaning and maintenance easier.
3-layer construction: typically composed of an aluminium core, a titanium surface in the area that contacts food, and a stainless steel surface elsewhere.
The main downside to titanium products is that they are more expensive than other counterparts, such as stainless steel. Also, be aware that not all titanium products are induction-top stove, oven or dishwasher friendly. It varies between manufacturers and products, therefore one must check before buying.
Is cooking with titanium dangerous?
As with other forms of cookware and bakeware, reputable companies generally produce higher quality products. Buying from a no-name company or a market-stall comes with the risk of being unable to verify the authenticity and reliability of the product. You may buy either a fake titanium product or one that has been illegally imported and contains high levels of contaminants such as the heavy metals lead or cadmium. It may be cheap in the short run but expensive, health-wise, in the long-term.
From a safety perspective, the following applies:
- Pure titanium cookware, typically used by backpackers, is considered inert, non-toxic and safe.
- The main potential risk factor with titanium products comes from the coating. The most common types of titanium cookware used at home are pure titanium with a silicon coating, or hybrid titanium cookware that may have a ceramic coating. Therefore, the quality of the coating will determine how long the product lasts as well as the risk of leaching should the coating become heavily scratched, bubble, chipped, brittle and crack. Some manufactures produce non-stick titanium finishes that they claim do not use a ceramic-type coating.
With hybrid titanium cookware that has an aluminium core, it is the function of the titanium ceramic coating to prevent aluminium leaching into the food. The risk associated with aluminium leaching into food was discussed earlier in this article. This should only become an issue if the ceramic coating is breached, e.g. cracked, because manufacturers claim these coatings are non-porous, non-toxic, and inert.
However, be aware that marketing terms can be used in a liberal manner. Before buying a product, always take time to check out the materials used in its manufacturer. Some products labelled ‘titanium cookware’ may include non-stick materials considered undesirable. For example, this product contains a ‘Titanium-composite exterior’ but also comes with a ‘durable DuPont Autograph nonstick interior’. As noted in the section on Non-Stick Coatings, Du Pont is synonymous with the brand name Teflon. The Autograph series represents a newer generation non-stick coating surface. Also, be aware that the term ‘titanium infused non-stick coating’ often implies PTFE-based.
If titanium were to leach from cookware, does this pose a health risk?
Setting aside the issues of contaminants from low-quality products or the substances present in the coatings, what is the risk associated specifically with titanium?
A review of the literature concerning titanium toxicity reveals the vast majority of studies have investigated titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Aside from this, the remaining studies typically focus on implants used in orthopaedics and dentistry. When adverse events are reported (which is rare), they usually relate to inflammatory or hypersensitivity/allergic reactions and loosening implants. There were no specific studies concerning titanium cookware or bakeware.
Below is a brief overview of studies related to titanium metal (not titanium dioxide). The relevance of these to cookware and bakeware will be discussed afterwards. Note that in the last few years, several studies have emerged suggesting titanium may not be as safe as it is generally believed.
Haynes et al. 1993 investigated the toxicity of various metal alloy particles and related inflammatory responses in rats. They found that, “The titanium-aluminum-vanadium particles showed little toxicity even at high concentrations, while the cobalt-chromium particles were very toxic.” However, the titanium alloy significantly increased the release of prostaglandin E2, a hormone-like substance associated with promoting tissue inflammation.
Müller and Valentine-Thon 2006 concluded “titanium can induce clinically-relevant hypersensitivity in a subgroup of patients chronically exposed via dental or endoprosthetic implants [internal prosthesis/artificial replacement].”
Dennison 2010 considered the health implications of implanted titanium plates. He noted that animal studies “suggest that titanium has a low risk of carcinogenicity” even though rare reports of cancers in humans associated with titanium plates existed. The study felt it remained unclear whether these plates should be left in place long term.
Wood and Warshar 2015 studied the issue of titanium hypersensitivity and reviewed rare cases reported in the literature.
Fage et al. 2016 reviewed various aspects of exposure to titanium from implants and personal care products. They noted that, although titanium does not appear to penetrate a competent skin barrier, “there are some indications of Ti [titanium] penetration through the oral mucosa.” However, because of the lack of a standardized test for titanium allergy, diagnosing it relies on clinical evaluation. They found, “Reports on clinical allergy and adverse events have rarely been published. Whether this is because of unawareness of possible adverse reactions to this specific metal, difficulties in detection methods, or the metal actually being relatively safe to use, is still unresolved.”
Rahman et al. 2016 studied coatings on titanium alloys used for orthopaedic implants. They found titanium coatings “enhance corrosion resistance and improve cytocompatibility [not being harmful to cells].”
Kim et al. 2019 general review of titanium toxicity within medical and dental fields noted that there is a lack of comprehensive reporting on the issue. The study concluded that titanium toxicity associated with implants occurs, but that it is very rare. When problems occurred, they were associated with localised inflammatory issues, toxic reactions in other tissues, e.g. yellow nail syndrome, as well as allergic reactions.
Wang et al. 2020 noted “Ti [titanium] particles were found toxic to SAOS2 cells [bone-forming cells] at different dosages.”
Zhou et al. 2021 observed, “Titanium is considered to be a metal material with the best biological safety.” However, they acknowledged titanium particles released from dental implants can cause local inflammation but can also “migrate with blood flow and aggregate in the distal [far from the point of origin] organ.”
Messous et al. 2021 reviewed the toxicity of submicron and nano particles of commercially pure titanium used in dental implants. They found various factors affected the outcome but that a high concentration of nanoparticles “intensifies the inflammatory responses with mutagenic potential [capable of inducing genetic mutation] of the surrounding cells.” Moreover, they noted “micro- and nano-scale particles can reach the bloodstream, accumulating in lungs, liver, spleen, and bone marrow.”
Therefore, can we draw any conclusions from these studies in relation to possible risks associated with titanium leaching from titanium cookware and bakeware?
First, titanium implants remain in the body continuously and are therefore a good indicator of the effects of exposure to titanium on a long-term basis. By comparison, exposure to titanium leached from cookware would be classed as infrequent. However, cooking far exceeds the body temperature of implants and, as we have discovered elsewhere in this article, high temperature cooking is often linked to increased problems of leaching.
Second, titanium leaching from dental implants and from cookware into food would both lead to ingestion of titanium via the oral route. Fage et al.2016 suggested titanium can penetrate the oral mucosa.
Third, adverse events from titanium were rare or rarely reported, e.g. Kim et al. 2019. However, Fage et al. 2016 said that various factors, e.g. detection methods, may account for possible under-reporting of the situation.
Fourth, when adverse events occurred, several studies noted inflammatory and hypersensitivity/allergic issues associated with titanium implants, e.g. Müller and Valentine-Thon 2006.
Fifth, studies suggesting low risk included Haynes et al. 1993, who found titanium in alloys showed little toxicity even at high concentrations. Dennison 2010 noted that animal studies suggest titanium has a low risk of carcinogenicity. Even recently, Zhou et al. 2021 repeated the common perception that titanium is considered the metal material with the best biological safety.
Sixth, recent studies in the last couple of years have suggested that titanium particles carry health risks. Wang et al. 2020 found they are toxic to bone-forming cells, and Messous et al. 2021 suggested they have mutagenic potential (inducing gene mutation). Furthermore, both Zhou et al. 2021 and Messous et al. 2021 noted these particles can be transported by the bloodstream and accumulate in various organs.
Therefore, in summary, it would seem that adverse reactions to titanium metal are rare and when they occur, they are of an inflammatory and allergic nature. Although a few recent studies suggest titanium particles may be linked to potential health issues, there are simply too few at present to draw any firm conclusions. Moreover, until a body of studies emerge specifically addressing risks associated with titanium cookware and bakeware, one can only say that, at present, titanium cookware and bakeware would still be considered one of the safer options.
Advice regarding using titanium cookware and bakeware
- Be sure to check whether the titanium product can be used on an induction-top stove, placed in the oven or is dishwasher safe. This differs between products and manufacturers.
- Buy good quality cookware from a reputable source.
- Inspect titanium cookware and bakeware for damage. Unless pure titanium, damage to the coating with hybrid products could result in leaching of the core material, which is typically aluminium. Never use scouring pad as this increases the risk of damage long-term. Only clean with a non abrasive cloth or sponge.
- Erring on the side of caution, anyone with kidney disease or who has an increased risk of developing neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease might wish to avoid titanium products that contain an aluminium core.
Healthier and safer cookware and bakeware
Although the following section will cover healthier and safer cookware and bakeware, remember that safe or very safe does not mean 100% safe. The only thing one can say is that they represent a safer option at this point in time than cookware or bakeware made from certain other materials.
Despite quality control, no two batches of a product are identical. For a given product, issues can arise from variations in the quality of the raw materials used, changes in the actual manufacturing process, as well as the packaging used to ship the products. For example, we had previously referred to a study by Bradley and Castle 2007 who suggested cookware printed packaging materials could have accounted for detected migration substances in their experiment.
Furthermore, the end user can affect the risk level depending on whether they adhere to the manufacturer’s guidelines and maintain the product properly.
Ultimately, overall risk is determined by many variables. To illustrate this point, remember the study by Koo et al. 2020 concerning the health risk of toxic metal associated with metallic kitchen utensils made from stainless steel, aluminium, copper alloy, and cast iron. They observed many factors affected the outcome, for example:
- The release of toxic metals increased with acidity.
- New products released significantly higher levels of toxic metals even with materials commonly referred to as being safe, e.g. release of chromium or nickel from stainless steel.
- Only washing using water or using a steel wool pad was associated with higher levels of arsenic and chromium in certain samples.
- Seasoning (oiling) cast iron significantly reduced the release of arsenic, cadmium, chromium and nickel in acidic conditions.
Therefore, regarding health risks associated with cookware and bakeware, the following table presents key points and suggests healthier and safer alternatives.
| Type of Product | Comments and Healthier/Safer Alternatives |
| Aluminium foil | Avoid. Use baking (parchment) paper where possible. |
| Aluminium products–untreated |
Discard and only use anodized aluminium products. Consider using glassware, cast iron, stainless steel or titanium products. |
| Cast iron and rust |
Cast iron is considered a safer option. If properly maintained and seasoned, iron leaching is only a risk to those with haemochromatosis. Enamel coated cast iron is an alternative. |
| Ceramic and enamel |
Only buy from reputable companies. Do not prepare or eat food from decorative, antique, craft or collectable products. Glassware is an alternative, as are cast iron, stainless steel or titanium products. |
| Copper products–untreated |
Discard and only use coated copper products. Consider using glassware, cast iron, stainless steel or titanium products. |
| Cutting boards | Be aware of issues surrounding silicone products. |
| Non-stick coatings |
Various studies have raised concerns, including the newer generation of products. Discard products made before 2015 because of PFOA. Avoid high temperatures. Consider using glassware, cast iron, stainless steel or titanium products. |
| Silicone products |
Various studies have raised concerns. Always cure silicone bakeware products. Avoid high temperatures. Consider using glassware, cast iron, nickel free stainless steel or titanium products. |
| Stainless steel products |
Stainless steel is considered a safer option. If sensitive to nickel, consider nickel-free stainless steel products. If very sensitive to nickel, consider alternatives such as glassware. Products that incorporate copper are preferable to those with aluminium. In particular, if aluminium leaching occurs due to damage, it can be problematic for those with kidney disease or who are at risk of developing neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. |
| Titanium products |
Titanium cookware is considered a safer option. Unlike pure titanium products, hybrid types typically have an aluminium core covered in a titanium ceramic coating. If this coating is breached through damage, it may present a problem to anyone with kidney disease or is at risk of developing neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. |
